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The Albania SimSmoke simulation model is used to examine the effects of tobacco control policies. The model is used to consider the projected trends in smoking prevalence and associated smoking-attributable deaths in the absence of new policies, and then to examine the effect of new policies that are consistent with the Framework Convention for Tobacco Control (FCTC) on these outcomes.
The model shows that significant inroads to reducing smoking prevalence and premature mortality can be achieved through tax increases. A comprehensive strategy to further reduce smoking rates should include a media campaign complete with programs to publicize and enforce clean air laws, a comprehensive cessation treatment program, strong health warnings, advertising bans, and youth access laws.
Besides presenting the benefits of a comprehensive tobacco control strategy, the model helps to identify important information needed for both modeling and policymaking. The effectiveness of future tobacco control policy will require proper surveillance and evaluation schemes for Albania.

The aging of our population represents a most significant demographic change. It represents important challenges and consequences for the nation's economic, social, and health institutions and for the health and well-being of older persons and their families.
Old people over 60 are now the most rapidly growing segment of the population and represent 20% of all Slovak inhabitants. Because of the high prevalence of morbidity and disability among the elderly they are the most important consumers of health care and social care services, both extramural and intramural.
Long-term care is a relatively closed system of health care and social care services. Initially, long-term care policies were formulated as a response to ageing of the population, which brought about growing needs of elderly people for social care and health care, and was associated with relatively rapid increases of necessary costs.
All industrial countries are facing similar problems when it comes to the integration of long-term care. In developed countries, current long-term care focuses on all age groups in need of assistance and support from others due to the limitations caused by their state of health. Long-term care within the public services system does not exist in Slovakia.

Orofacial clefts (OC) are quite common congenital defects. Retrospective active survey collecting clinical data of children with OC examined and operated on in the three main specialized departments of plastic surgery in the Slovak Republic over 16 years (1985-2000) revealed total incidence of 1.61/103 live births (LB). 1,849 children suffering from OC were recognised out of 1,147,236 live births.
Total incidence (TI) of OC per 1,000 live births was determined by types, gender, regions, districts and seasonal variation. The highest rate, 40.5% of clefts, affected the primary and secondary palate (CLP), more than 32% were of cleft palate type (CP), about 26% cleft lip (CL) and about 1% of associated malformations (AM). Clefts in males (1.71 /103 LB) were significantly more common than in females (1.50/103 LB), sex ratio 1.14:1. Morbidity rates (TI) varies from 1.29/103 LB in the east Slovakia to the highest incidence of 1.93/103 LB in the middle Slovakia with wide range by district.
Comparing data from the study and from the national register, 17% of children with OC were missed. Presented survey assessed risk of OC in Slovakia at the rate 1 newborn with OC per 620 LB compared with notified frequency of 1 OC per 745 LB.

Previous investigations have shown an association of androgenetic alopecia (AGA) with insulin resistance related disorders such as ischemic heart disease. An association between AGA and anthropometric abnormalities linked with insulin resistance and heredity in women aged 63 years has also been shown. We therefore compared 63-year-old men with AGA and ones with normal hair status for insulin resistance linked parameters. A population of 245 men aged 63 years, who were participants in a population-based cross-sectional study in the City of Oulu, underwent a medical check-up including assessment of hair status on the Hamilton-Norwood scale and determination of anthropometric measures, blood pressure, fasting glucose and serum lipids.
Fifty eight per cent of the men reported extensive hair loss (grade III-VII). Hypertension and the use of antihypertensive drugs were common among men with AGA (61% vs. 45% and 50% vs. 26%, respectively). The rates of diabetes and hyperinsulinemia (21% vs. 12% and 61% vs. 49%) were higher among men with AGA compared to those with normal hair status but no difference was seen in other factors.
Our findings show that AGA is common among Finnish men aged 63 years but that it is also associated with insulin linked disturbances, such as hypertension and diabetes. Such men developing AGA might benefit from attention in medical check-up.

Aim: To analyze socio-demographic correlates of alcohol drinking among Greek healthy adults.
Methods: Data related to alcohol consumption patterns of 5,500 adult individuals, coming from 26 Hellenic provinces were abstracted from SESy-Europe database within a framework of the nationwide Hellenic anticancer-trial PACMeR 02 study. Statistic: χ2 test and logistic regression analyses were used.
Results: 42.5% of males and 82.5% of females did not consume alcoholic drinks. Among users, daily alcohol assumption was 28.50 g/day for men and 9.85 g/day for women. The mainland population presented higher proportions for both abstainers and moderate-heavy drinkers. Consumption rate was higher for sub-populations living in islands, but they were mostly light drinkers rather than heavy consumers. Among males, younger subjects, farmers and craftsmen had a higher tendency for alcohol abuse. Among females, the proportion of consumers and abusers was notably more elevated among younger individuals, especially among those living in urban areas of mainland, with higher educational level, employees and freelance professionals. A particular attention to the newly and rapidly growing patterns of alcoholism among young females should be given and prevention programs should be promptly developed.

In this work we evaluate the microbiological quality and the hygiene degree of meat foods consumed in the city of San Luis. A total of 515 meat food samples (315 from fresh sausages, 100 from hamburgers and 100 from ground beef) were processed, being the most of them non-industrial products. The microbiological quality was determined by counts of total mesophilic bacteria, coliforms, Escherichia coli, molds and yeasts, and Clostridium perfringens. The number of total mesophilic aerobes was within the 106 cfu/g limit set by the Argentinaan Alimentary Code (AAC). Two hundred seventy six samples exhibited E. coli levels between 101 and 103 cfu/g. The 58.26% of the samples with E. coli counts above > 101 cfu/g came from hamburgers and fresh sausages exceeding the AAC limits. Counts of molds and yeasts ranged between 103 and 105 cfu/g. From a total of 515 samples, 126 exhibited C. perfringens, out of which 80 (64.08%) gave counts > 102/g, exceeding the limits set by the AAC. Out of these 80 samples, C. perfringens counts were above 105 cfu/g in 12 of them, and E. coli was also detected in 48 samples (38.10%).
The samples with counts > 105 C. perfringens/g are potentially responsible for alimentary intoxication. The results obtained indicate the need to improve the processing and handling conditions of these products.

The mean dietary intake of sulphites by Slovak children aged 7 to 10 years was estimated. Calculations were based on a food model of a specific boarding-school in January, May, July and October while respecting the scientifically recommended dietary allowances. It was assumed that sulphites were used in the widest possible range of foods and at maximum permitted levels. Due to this fact and since sulphites are partially lost during food processing and storage, the results are over-estimated. However the mean daily exposure of consumers with the lowest (21 kg) and the mean (26.5 kg) body weight to sulphites ranged from 44 to 55% and from 36 to 43% of the acceptable daily intake value (ADI) respectively. Due to availability of various foods the dietary models were not affected seasonally and thus no differences among intakes of sulphites in individual months were obvious. The results indicated that the above mentioned group of children is sufficiently protected from the hazard of sulphites in food.

On the Czech set of European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC), we tried to verify whether it is possible to confirm the results of foreign studies which found out that the both prenatal and postnatal exposure of newborns to chemicals on cigarette smoke could influence the newborns'morbidity in the first six months of their life.
Mothers, who served as sources of data about their smoking behaviour during the pregnancy and after the birth as well as information about the health status of the children after the birth (N=3,871) were divided into four groups: 1. women who never smoked (74.3%), 2. women who stopped smoking in pregnancy and started to smoke after delivery (18.3%), 3. women who smoked both during pregnancy and after delivery (7.2%), 4. women who smoked during pregnancy and stopped after delivery. Unfortunatelly, the last group was very small (only seven mothers) and did not allow assessment of exclusively prenatal exposition.
Sucklings from Czech ELSPAC set exposed to chemicals in cigarette smoke either only after the birth or also during the prenatal period, showed significantly higher occurence of different symptoms of respiratory tract damages and their complications (like otitis media) when compared to children of non smoking mothers. Due to illnesses during the first six months after the birth, their parents had to look more often for the consultations of physician, including hospitalization. Our results, as well as results of foreign studies, confirm, that smoking of mothers during the pregnancy and after the birth represents significant risk for the first months of life. Illnesses of children in this early period can cause longitudinal consequences which emerge during the childhood as well as in adulthood. They also represent a strong stressogenic factor. Children's health consequences of exposure to cigarette smoke request very often intensive and expensive care within health system.
Our results are the same as those of foreign studies and confirm that both prenatal and postnatal exposure to chemicals of cigarette smoke is significant risk factor which negatively influences the health status on the early periods life.

Background: Ukraine has the highest rate of HIV infection in Europe, with an estimated adult prevalence of 1.6 percent. The epidemic in Ukraine remains largely driven by injection drug use, and women of reproductive age are being increasingly affected. Prior research has highlighted the need to improve the quality of services for prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) and to address other issues related to HIV counseling, testing, and care, especially in the context of antenatal and obstetric services.
Methods: From 2004 to 2007, PATH led a collaborative effort to improve the quality of PMTCT services in Ukraine. Initial assessments included focus groups with Ukrainian women and review of existing educational materials. Interventions focused on training providers to improve skills in communication and referral to community-based support; they also addressed the underlying issue of stigma.
Results: Observational data demonstrated that providers who participated in the training intervention delivered PMTCT counseling of a consistently higher quality than did providers who did not undergo training. Exit interviews with clients confirmed these findings.
Conclusions: An intervention focused on strengthening voluntary counseling and testing for HIV, forging partnerships with local organizations, and undoing HIV-related stigma can help to improve access to and quality of PMTCT services in antenatal care clinics.

Background. The Czech Republic is a member of the European Union (EU) and the World Health Organization (WHO). The EU has made tobacco use prevention a primary health issue and WHO European Region has adopted the European Strategy for Tobacco Control. The aim of the current study is to evaluate the status of tobacco use among adolescents in the Czech Republic and relate these findings to the tobacco control programme efforts supported by the EU and WHO.
Methods. Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) data were collected from representative samples of students in grades associated with ages 13-15 in the Czech Republic in 2002 and 2007.
Results. Current cigarette smoking decreased from 35% to 31% overall. Exposure to second-hand smoke (SHS) in public places remained unchanged over time (75% in 2007). Almost half of respondents reported having a parent who smokes and about one third had best friends who smoked. There were significant decreases in exposure to pro-tobacco advertisements on billboards in magazines.
Conclusions. Efforts to reduce the current and projected harm caused by tobacco use in the Czech Republic are urgently needed. The Czech Republic needs to expand its national comprehensive tobacco prevention and control programmes and enforce those laws already passed. Without this effort little reduction can be expected in the burden of chronic diseases and tobacco-related mortality.
What this paper adds. Results from the GYTS conducted in the Czech Republic indicate a number of serious challenges to prevent and control tobacco use in the region despite a range of ongoing tobacco control activities. GYTS data can enhance countries' capacity to monitor tobacco use among youth; guide development, implementation, and evaluation of their national tobacco prevention and control programme; and allow comparison of tobacco-related data at the national, regional, and global levels.

Year 1989, the fall of communism, represents a dramatic watershed. Changes and reforms reflected also upon the quality of health care and the health of populations living on eastern side of the divide. Until then, Eastern Europe had free socialized medicine, albeit troubled by lack of up-to-date medications and absence of modern diagnostic equipment. Noting the admirable progress in health in some regions of the former Soviet empire during its transformation provides invaluable sociological lesson. Furthermore, focusing on health trends in two Central European countries, the Czech republic (CZ) and Slovakia (SK), brings about another quality to such evaluation. Dramatic improvement in the life expectancy (LE) is represented mainly in the decrease of cardiovascular mortality, more in the Czech Republic than in Slovakia. Favorable trend of male LE in the Czech Republic exceeded several established West European countries, while in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine the life expectancy actually deteriorated. When life expectancy in Slovakia is compared with the Czech Republic, its poorer outcome results from a higher cardiovascular mortality, as well as from liver, digestive and respiratory disorders. Root causes of this difference are possibly in a marked difference in funding of health care between SK and CZ, higher consumption of alcohol and cigarettes, as well as in a sizeable disadvantaged Roma minority in Slovakia.

Aim. Bulgaria joined the European Union in 2007. This study aims to analyse Bulgarian scientific health output over a five year period before enlargement, highlighting both its interests and concordance with European health recommendations.
Methods. A bibliometric analysis was undertaken in MEDLINE between 2000 and 2004 according to a year-by-year bibliographic search. The articles were classified by fourteen fields according to the main European Union health report recommendations.
Results. 2,176 articles were found, distributed as follows: 15.63% in 2000, 20.50% in 2001, 20.63% in 2002, 19.9% in 2003 and 23.25% in 2004. 89.48% of the articles were written in English, 78.81% of the total scientific output was published abroad. Most of the articles were signed by Bulgarian authors and were carried out in Bulgarian research centers.
Conclusion. Increased number of articles was noted mainly in the basic research field and global clinical medicine. Bulgarian research priorities generally were aligned with the European Union health recommendations. More sources are recommended to be consulted and more analysis conducted of the Bulgarian research.

Background: It has been observed that the prevalence of dental caries among children has declined in the last decade in Germany. However, despite of these improvements there is still a proportion of children suffering from dental decay.
Aims: The aims of this study were to evaluate if a social gradient in the prevalence of dental caries exists and, based on those findings, to develop a strategy to target those children with heightened risk to develop dental caries in order to assist oral health care professionals to refocus the current uniform school-based dental health programme to a caries preventive strategy based on a directed population approach. Design: A representative, random sample of 12-year olds in Freiburg (Germany) was examined and dental caries was recorded using WHO criteria. Educational attainment of the child's parents was used as an indicator of socio-economic status and classified by use of the CASMIN Educational Classification.
Results: A total of 322 children participated. An examination of dental caries score revealed that its distribution was positively skewed. For this reason this study provides summary analyses based on medians and a non-parametric rank-sum test. The Kruskal-Wallis H-test showed a significant difference between median scores across the different educational levels (p-value=0.015) which was due to lower dental caries levels in children with non-deprived social background.
Conclusions: In order to reduce current social inequalities in child oral health the current uniform school-based dental health programme at secondary school level should be developed to a targeted school-based screening and prevention programme.

Aims: The aim of this paper is to describe the reform of General Practitioners' (GP) training in the Czech Republic (CR) and compare it with the recommendations of European institutions of General Practitioners and European Union (EU) legislation.
Methods: The structures of the new Czech GP training (2007) were compared with the recommendations of The European Union of General Practitioners (UEMO), European Academy of Teachers in General Practice and the requirements set by the EU legislation. The comparison with other countries was based on data from the UEMO questionnaire distributed to its members. Data from representatives of institutions responsible for specialist training in the CR and from statistical offices in the CR were also used.
Results: The GP specialist training in the Czech Republic does not differ significantly when compared to the other UEMO countries, however, not all the recommendations of the European GP associations have been fulfilled.
Conclusion: The reform of GP specialist training brought about positive changes but further developments are still needed. In our opinion, the next necessary step is the setting up of quality criteria for the assessment of GP specialist training and of the primary care as a whole.

Objective: The objective of this paper is to review experience in prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV in Georgia. Background: PMTCT is one of the strategic priorities in Georgia. The first case of HIV infection in pregnant women was reported in 1999. Starting 2005 the National Programme on PMTCT became operational.
Materials and Methods: One hundred sixteen HIV voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) centers operate throughout the country at antenatal clinics. According to the National PMTCT protocol, all first time attending pregnant women are offered Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT). Testing on HIV/AIDS is based on identification of HIV antibodies by screening method and all positive results are referred to the Infectious Diseases, AIDS and Clinical Immunology Research Center (IDACIRC) for the further investigation (confirmation by Western Blot assay) and further management. Data collection was made retrospectively, using information from IDACIRC National HIV/AIDS Data Base, VRF for the period 1999-2007. Results: Prevalence of HIV among pregnant women availing VCT services in 2006 was 0.03%. As of December, 2007 total 69 pregnancies of 64 women were registered at the IDACIRC.
Fifty eight women (90.6%) acquired infection through heterosexual contact. None of the HIV positive women reported intravenous injection of illicit drugs. The majority of the HIV infected pregnant women had one sexual partner (90.6%). Of children delivered by 51 positive partners 41(80%) were infected through injecting drugs intravenously and 10 (20%) persons through heterosexual contacts.
Throughout the period 1999-2007 14 pregnant women received PMTCT services only partially. In 2 cases children were HIV-infected. In 12 pregnancies women received AZT in about the 28th week of pregnancy. No case of HIV transmission to child was recorded in this group. In 32 cases pregnant women received full prophylaxis therapy and all children were negative for HIV infection. Among 6 pregnant women admitted at IDACIRC later than the 28th week of pregnancy only 1 child was infected. As of December 2007, 5 women are still pregnant. Three of them receive antiretroviral drugs (ARV) prophylaxis with AZT+3TC+SQV/r. Two women are under 28 weeks of gestational age.
Conclusion: Over the last several years the national response to AIDS in Georgia achieved significant progress. The provision of comprehensive packages of PMTCT services in Georgia has been shown to minimize the risk of vertical transmission. As described above none of the women completing full course of ARV prophylaxis, combined with appropriate infant feeding, transmitted HIV to their children. PMTCT programmes are indisputably the main entry point not only for HIV related care and treatment for women, but also for other comprehensive care and prevention.

Context: There is little information on health situation of the people of rural Slovak Republic. The rural environment is often a mixture of natural and man-made hazards, which under some conditions, might turn to be a health risk to humans.
Purpose: The aim of this study was to compare two regions of the Slovak Republic, two different hazards (natural and man-made), two different methods of health outcome measurement (routine statistics and individual diary based data).
Methods: Ecological study design with focus on cancer incidence analysis was employed in case of natural hazard analysis. Standardized incidence ratios (SIR) were calculated and are presented in paper. Observational study design was employed to study rural gardening practices and their impact on health.
Findings: Statistically significant differences in SIR were found in rural areas of Spis-Gemer Region (SGR) among males for lip, oral cavity and larynx (1.60, CI 95% 1.12-2.34), respiratory (1.25, CI 95% 1.01-1.55) and digestive organ cancers (1.22, CI 95% 1.01-1.47); hematopoetic cancers are significantly elevated among males in rural areas as well (1.58, CI 95% 1.05-2.39). Pesticide use (83.1% of gardeners use pesticides) without any protective equipment is still widespread among gardeners in rural Slovak Republic (16.9%). The produced fruits and vegetables are substantial part of total fruit and vegetable consumption (51% in summer and 42.7% in winter season) increasing the risk of exposure to pesticides. Conclusion: Our study shows that on ecological level, mortality and morbidity statistics could be used to assess human health status in linkage to broad exposure measures (urban- rural); on dose response level (arsenic in soil) this method lacks sensitivity. Health survey and diary method on the other hand are useful tools in analysis of rural health especially with respect to man-made hazards.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is prevalent worldwide and is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. This article describes the trend in HBV occurrence in Estonia from 1990 to 2005 in Estonia, with the aim of highlighting key determinants in transmission dynamics, risk groups, and possible implications for prevention and control.
A marked increase in reported numbers of new HBV cases occurred in mid 1990s (reaching 39 per 100,000 population) and decline thereafter. We present data on HBV prevalence from different population groups (persons with verified sexually transmitted infection, prisoners, medical personnel, blood donors and injection drug users). Special vaccination programmes introduced in Estonia have been successful in the prevention of HBV, however, we suggest that the main risk groups such as injection drug users (IDUs), men having sex with men (MSM) and HIV infected persons should be actively encompassed into HBV vaccination programme.

Practice teaching is an important feature of pre-professional preparation of teachers. This study assessed student teachers' (STs) and pupils': overall evaluation and evaluation of pupils' roles in physical education (PE) and second subject lessons. STs delivered the lessons using either traditional or progressive teaching approaches. Questionnaires were completed by 57 STs and 10,517 high school pupils who assessed the lessons taught by the STs. Differences in the evaluation of pupil's role were analysed according to teaching approach, school years, and gender. In both types of lessons, pupils evaluated progressive teaching approaches more positively than the traditional approaches. Pupils' roles in lessons delivered using progressive teaching approaches also increased. STs evaluated the progressive approaches in both lessons more positively than traditional approaches. Girls evaluated PE lessons more favourably than boys regardless of teaching approach. If the goal is to increase pupils' role in the lessons, progressive teaching approach may be more effective than traditional.

Aim: Retrospective analysis of the prescribing practice and cost of ambulatory treatment of hypertension and its common complications - heart failure, sequelae of cerebrovascular disease, and angina pectoris.
Methods: Analysis of 3,240 reimbursable ambulatory prescriptions for hypertension, heart failure, sequelae of cerebrovascular disease and angina pectoris according to the complexity of the therapy and frequency of the prescribed medicines. Modeling and calculation of the expected monthly cost for outpatient therapy by using the "decision tree model". Sensitivity analysis is performed within the ±30% interval. Results: 65% of the prescription were for the hypertension, and 35% for the observed complications. 1,297 prescriptions for hypertension include one medicine, 647 include two medicines, and only 8% of prescriptions were for three medicines. ACE inhibitors have been prescribed in 41% of all hypertension prescriptions, followed by beta-blockers (19%), Ca channel blockers (16%), diuretics (15%) etc. The prescriptions for hypertension complications are more diverse as therapeutic groups. The expected monthly cost of prescribed medicines per patient with hypertension alone is 6.90 € and in case of complications it is 10.71 € according to the prevalence of the complexity of therapy, and weighted monthly cost of medicines. The overall ambulatory cost is expected to be around 148 million € per year for near 1.5 million patients with 44% reimbursement. The cost of the therapy is sensitive more to changes in the medicine's prices than to its complexity.
Conclusion: This study is a first step in providing information for evidence-based cost containment measures or policy decisions at ambulatory level in Bulgaria and for the assessment of the share of complications' therapy on the overall hypertension cost.

Epidemiologic studies conducted in the 1990s identified several independent healthcare associated risk factors for HBV and HCV infections in Pakistan. In 2002, we re-examined healthcare associated HBV and/or HCV infection risk factors in volunteer blood donors.
In this case-control study, we collected data using a structured questionnaire on socioeconomic attributes, putative healthcare related risk factors, and other known factors for HBV and HCV infections in Karachi, Pakistan.
The multivariable logistic-regression model (166 cases, 394 controls) after adjusting for socio-demographic attributes and other known HBV and HCV risk factors revealed that more cases than controls had multiple lifetime hospitalization, adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=2.48; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.04,5.94, and had received dental treatment from an unqualified provider (AOR=5.90, CI, 1.66,21.02). More cases than controls had received a large number of therapeutic injections during the last 5 years (1-5 injections vs. 0, AOR=2.64, 95% CI 1.06,6.60; 6-19 injections vs. 0, AOR=4.09, 95% CI 1.59,10.51; ≥20 injections vs. 0,AOR=4.34, 95% CI 1.70,11.07), and had their last injection given using a re-usable glass syringe (AOR=3.41 CI 1.13,10.29).
Our data suggest that risk factors for HBV and HCV infections identified in the last decade have remained unchanged in healthcare facilities in Karachi. Additional multi-disciplinary efforts are needed to control healthcare associated HBV and HCV transmission in Pakistan.

The results of the study Benchmarking Regional Health Management II suggest that compulsory measles immunisation is a good practice in public health management. Yet, the potential achievement of the desired health outcome alone is not a sufficient reason to make the immunisation obligatory. Rather, compulsory measles immunisation is a morally challenging measure. In this article, compulsory measles immunisation is critically evaluated from a public health ethics point of view. For this evaluation, a set of ethical criteria is proposed: respect for autonomy, health maximisation, efficiency, proportionality and social justice. The authors suggest it should not be taken for granted that compulsory measles immunisation should be championed, rather, health policy makers in the European Union should try to raise immunisation rates with non-compulsory means.

It is generally accepted that socio-economic status (SES) influences dietary habits as well as human health. Three main parameters have been most often used to define SES, i.e. occupation, education and income. These characteristics cover different aspects of the socio-economic structure of people. The aim of this review is to present the current knowledge regarding the relationships between SES, dietary habits and health-related outcomes in various parts of the world.

Background: Social inequalities have been shown to contribute to the risk of lung cancer in industrialized countries, but it is unclear whether they also play a role in former socialist countries of Europe.
Methods: A case-control study involving 3,403 cases and 3,670 controls was conducted in Central European countries (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia), Russia, and in the UK. Indicators of socioeconomic status, including education and white/blue collar occupation based on lifetime occupations were analysed as indicators of risk factors for lung cancer development, after adjustment for tobacco smoking and exposure to occupational carcinogens.
Results: Both indicators of socioeconomic status: low education and blue collar occupations were found as significant risk factors for lung cancer in men. The odds ratio of lung cancer for blue collar occupations compared to white collar occupations was 1.37 (95% confidence interval 1.15-1.62), that for low education compared to high education (analysis restricted to Central European countries) was 1.35 (95% confidence interval 1.03-1.77). No such effects were observed in women.
Conclusions: The confirmation of the significant inverse association between the indicators of socioeconomic status and lung cancer risk in men may serve as a strong incentive for adoption of occupational and public health measures in lung cancer prevention.

As the concentration of methylmercury (MeHg) in the environment is insignificant, hair can be used as a suitable matrix to estimate endogenous MeHg exposure. A validated analytical method with AMA 254 spectrometer was used for the determination of inorganic mercury and methylmercury species in the hair of dentists, workers in fish industry and professionally non-exposed adults. ANOVA and QC Expert software was used for statistical evaluation. The number of amalgam fillings in oral cavity, consumption of fish, gender, smoking habits and age of the subjects were taken into account. A significantly higher level of inorganic bound mercury (Hgin) was found in the hair of dentists. The number of amalgam fillings had a slightly significant effect on Hgin; fish consumption had a significant influence on MeHg and slightly also on Hgin. Other parameters were not significant.